Mental Health: Global Challenges Journal
https://reference-global.com/journal/MHGCJ
ISSN 2612-2138
The Pursuit of Happiness: Briefly on Positive Mental
Health, Well-Being, Trauma, and Resilience
Ihor Hoian 1 0000-0003-2548-0488, Dmytro Tovmash 2 0009-0006-3761-5983, Tetiana Danylova 3 0000-0001-9319-0154,
Olena Ishchenko 2 0000-0003-3832-2403,, Antonina Yaruchyk4 0000-0003-1293-0005, Oksana Fedyk 1 0000-0002-9029-2611,
Andrii Petraniuk 1 0000-0001-5009-4795, Natalia Kostruba4 0000-0002-3852-4729
1Vasyl Stefanyk Carpathian National University, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine
2Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Ukraine
3Institute for Social and Political Psychology, National Academy of Educational Sciences of Ukraine
4Lesya Ukrainka Volyn National University, Lutsk, Ukraine
Abstract
Introduction: Despite centuries of attempts to clearly define what human happiness is and how
to achieve it, no one has completely succeeded in defining happiness or showing the only one
way to achieve it. But still, the pursuit of happiness as an unalienable right of human beings who
have been striving for it for eons remains a relevant topic for everyone, including psychologists,
psychiatrists, and mental health specialists. Nowadays, great importance is placed on the
positive aspects of mental health, active functioning in the world, and overall well-being.
Purpose: Integrating psychological and philosophical perspectives, this paper aims to explore
the phenomenon of happiness as a core component of mental health and well-being.
Methodology: The authors conducted a systematic search in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science
and Google Scholar, using search terms: happiness; subjective well-
being; experience of
happiness; mental health; psychological well-
being; eudaimonia; resilience; quality of life;
traumatic experience; cultural trauma; sociocultural factors; culture. The authors used
phenomenological philosophical, hermeneutic and inductive approaches, as well as the
interpretive research paradigm.
Results: T
he attention of contemporary researchers is focused on the place and role of
happiness in mental health and well-being. Though ideas on happiness present a whole range
of options, two main directions can still be identified, namely, eudaemonism and hedonism, in
which happiness has been used to describe both momentary assessments of affect and life
evaluations. Contemporary researchers have developed several approaches to well-being
mainly emphasizing its eudaimonic character.
Conclusion: The dramatic shift in approaches to mental health and well-
being with an
emphasis on positivity has expanded understanding of factors and conditions that promote or
undermine our mental health and well-
being. Such an understanding should lead to the
creation of conditions for individual flourishing, social prosperity and overall well-being offering
innovative solutions to complex individual, organizational, and societal problems.
Keywords
Mental Health, Happiness, Subjective Well-Being, Experience of Happiness, Positive Mental
Health, Psychological Well-Being, Eudaimonia, Resilience, Quality of Life, Traumatic Experience,
Cultural Trauma, Sociocultural Factors, Culture
Address for correspondence:
Tetiana Danylova,
Institute for Social and Political Psychology, National Academy of
Educational Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
E-mail: dtv280365@gmail.com
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- 4.0 International
License (CC BY 4.0).
Β©Copyright: Danylova, 2026
Publisher: Paradigm (De Gruyter)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.56508/mhgcj.v9i1.358
Submitted for
publication: 17
November 2025
Revised: 07 February
2026
Accepted for
publication: 25
February 2026
7
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Introduction
As Sartre put it, it is impossible to define the
essence of a human being as there is no
abstract human nature. A human simply exists,
and he/she makes him/herself choosing from a
multitude of options every moment. People are
not what they think of themselves, but what they
make of themselves being projects that are
experienced subjectively, βbefore that projection
of the self nothing exists; not even in the heaven
of intelligence: man will only attain existence
when he is what he purposes to be. Not,
however, what he may wish to be. For what we
usually understand by wishing or willing is a
conscious decision taken β much more often
than not β after we have made ourselves what
we are. I may wish to join a party, to write a book
or to marry β but in such a case what is usually
called my will is probably a manifestation of a
prior and more spontaneous decision. If,
however, it is true that existence is prior to
essence, man is responsible for what he is. Thus,
the first effect of existentialism is that it puts every
man in possession of himself as he is, and places
the entire responsibility for his existence squarely
upon his own shouldersβ (Sartre, 1948, p. 28-29).
Life can be thought of as a labyrinth with
many exits. By choosing a direction to a particular
exit, we choose the path we will take. As we walk
this path, each of us sets a specific goal. These
goals can vary, and they ultimately define who
we truly are. Life guided by purposes is a
conscious life, because consciousness is the
determining principle here. The very concept of
conscious life testifies to the fact that the purpose
of human existence is fundamental, and to find it
is necessary for the consciousness of this
existence. For millennia, humanityβs finest minds
have tried to answer the questions βwhat is the
purpose of human life?β, βis it worth living?β
offering a variety of answers: from simple
pleasure and avoidance of pain to service to
humanity.
The 14th Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso concludes
that the purpose of human life is to be happy
emphasizing that βthe basic source of all
happiness is a sense of kindness and warm-
heartedness towards others. We are all the same
as human beings. We are born the same way,
we die the same way, and we all want to lead
happy livesβ (His Holiness the Dalai Lama, 2021).
Indeed, the experience of happiness is
something people strive for, although their
interpretations of this phenomenon can vary
significantly. Even various philosophical schools,
whose teachings have served as a βprecedent
and paradigmβ for entire epochs and cultures,
have understood happiness differently. Though
philosophersβ thoughts on happiness present a
whole range of options, two main directions can
still be identified, namely, eudaemonism and
hedonism.
The first approach originates from the ideas of
the ancient Greek thinkers Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle and is associated with the realization of a
personβs own unique merits and virtues in his/her
activities, which are consistent with his/her abilities
and capabilities. For Socrates, who stated that all
humans naturally desired happiness (Plato, 2013),
the way of happiness was βto choose the mean
and avoid the extremes on either side, as far as
possibleβ (Plato, 2021). This path between the two
extremes reminds of the Middle Way in
Mahayana Buddhism, through which we can find
happiness and bring harmony to life (Mintz, n/d).
The traditional interpretation of Platoβs
understanding of happiness is that βhappiness is
either psychic harmony or something sufficiently
caused by psychic harmonyβ. However, some
thinkers challenge this view stating that the great
philosopher βviews happiness as being sufficiently
caused by oneβs fulfilling oneβs social function,
that Plato is viewing happiness as something
quite close to what we would call job satisfaction,
or a sense of our realizing ourselves through our
workβ (Mohr, 1982). This understanding is far from
simple pleasure and is considered in a broad
intellectual and social context. These ideas to
some extent echo the philosophical views of
Hryhorii Skovoroda, whose reflections on human
happiness were the leitmotif of his philosophy.
The eudaimonic approach was revealed most
profoundly in the philosophy of Aristotle who
stated that the goal of all human doing was
happiness β the Chief Good, which is manifested
in the full development and use of human
abilities. Aristotle emphasized that people
understood happiness differently, although
everyone strived for it: βSo far as name goes,
there is a pretty general agreement: for
HAPPINESS both the multitude and the refined few
call it, and βliving wellβ and βdoing wellβ they
conceive to be the same with βbeing happy;β but
about the Nature of this Happiness, men dispute,
and the multitude do not in their account of it
agree with the wise. For some say it is some one
of those things which are palpable and
apparent, as pleasure or wealth or honour; in
fact, some one thing, some another; nay,
oftentimes the same man gives a different
account of it; for when ill, he calls it health; when
poor, wealth: and conscious of their own
ignorance, men admire those who talk grandly
and above their comprehension. Some again
held it to be something by itself, other than and
beside these many good things, which is in fact
to all these the cause of their being goodβ
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(Aristotle, 2021). According to Aristotle, human
happiness lies in activity of the soul in harmony
with virtue. Within this concept, moderation in
everything was seen as the path to happiness.
Philosophers believed that by balancing between
extremes, people could achieve inner equilibrium
and live in harmony with the world around them.
Another point of view is hedonism, according
to which all moral determinations are derived
from pleasure and pain. Hedonism was clearly
manifested in the position of the Cyrenaic
philosophers, for whom only pleasure was
intrinsically good, and only pain intrinsically bad,
and anything else being at best instrumentally
good or bad (Lampe, 2014). Thus, people should
seek pleasure and avoid pain. Similar motives
can be seen in the materialistic school of Ancient
India β Charvaka/Lokayata, which βdefends its
hedonistic principles by reasoning that one must
enjoy life thoroughly because one cannot
reclaim the desires of oneβs past after deathβ
(Winn, 2021).
Later, utilitarianism, another philosophical
tradition which interpreted happiness, emerged.
The notion βutilitarianismβ was coined by the
English philosopher Mill. This concept was based
on the ideas of Bentham, according to which
pleasure and pain were the fundamental natural
principles of human life. Everything must be
created in accordance with these natural
principles. All people strive to satisfy their desires.
Happiness/utility lies in pleasure, but in the
absence of suffering. Both pleasure and utility
were understood by Bentham in the broadest
possible terms: pleasure is any enjoyment,
including sensual pleasure, utility is any utility,
including profit. βBy βutilityβ is meant the property of
something whereby it tends to produce benefit,
advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness (all
equivalent in the present case) or (this being the
same thing) to prevent the happening of
mischiefβ¦, pain, evilβ¦, or unhappiness to the
party whose interest is considered. If that party is
the community in general, then the happiness of
the community; if itβs a particular individual, then
the happiness of that individualβ (Bentham, 2017).
The main principle of utilitarianism is βthe greatest
happiness of the greatest number that is the
measure of right and wrongβ.
Despite centuries of attempts to clearly define
what human happiness is and how to achieve it,
no one has completely succeeded in defining
happiness or showing the only one way to
achieve it (Guha & Carson, 2014). But still, the
pursuit of happiness as an unalienable right of
human beings who have been striving for it for
eons remains a relevant topic for everyone,
including psychologists, psychiatrists, and mental
health specialists. Nowadays, great importance is
placed on the positive aspects of mental health,
active functioning in the world, and overall well-
being.
Purpose
Integrating psychological and philosophical
perspectives, this paper aims to explore the
phenomenon of happiness as a core
component of mental health and well-being.
Methodology
The authors conducted a systematic search in
the electronic databases, such as PubMed,
Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar.
Relevant studies were identified using search
terms: happiness; subjective well-being;
experience of happiness; mental health; positive
mental health; psychological well-being;
eudaimonia; resilience; quality of life; traumatic
experience; cultural trauma; sociocultural factors;
culture. The authors used phenomenological
philosophical, hermeneutic and inductive
approaches, as well as the interpretive research
paradigm.
Ethical considerations
This research did not require IRB approval
because it did not involve humans or animals in
the study and was conducted as desk research
according to the thematic plan under the State
Registration Number of scientific research
0125U002247.
Declaration of Generative AI and AI-
Assisted Technologies in the Writing
Process
The authors declare that no generative
artificial intelligence tools were used to create
research data, fabricate sources, or generate
substantive scholarly claims in this manuscript.
Review and Discussion
Since, as we discussed above, happiness
plays such an important role in peopleβs lives and
can be considered a goal to strive for, the
attention of contemporary researchers is focused
on the place and role of happiness in mental
health and well-being. Happiness is a broad and
rather vague concept, and although, as Chekola
notes, some people are pessimistic about its
meaningfulness, in empirical research scientists
constantly refer to it, βeven when they use
alternative terms such as ββsubjective well-beingβ,
believing it is easier to specify operational
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definitions of such terms to use in empirical
studiesβ (2007).
The concept of well-being seems very familiar
and understandable, but, like happiness, it is not
so easy to define it. In its simplest sense, well-
being is an overall measurement of life: if we are
satisfied with our lives, then our well-being is good
and our lives are filled with meaning,
accomplishment, and success. WHO defines
well-being as a βpositive state experienced by
individuals and societies. Similar to health, it is a
resource for daily life and is determined by social,
economic and environmental conditions. Well-
being encompasses quality of life and the ability
of people and societies to contribute to the world
with a sense of meaning and purpose. Focusing
on well-being supports the tracking of the
equitable distribution of resources, overall thriving
and sustainability. A societyβs well-being can be
determined by the extent to which it is resilient,
builds capacity for action, and is prepared to
transcend challengesβ (Promoting Well-Being,
2025).
The concept of well-being is sometimes used
synonymously with the concept of quality of life.
However, they are not equivalent and are related
to different theoretical concepts (Skevington &
Boehnke, 2018). Accepting the complexity of
these concepts, Salvador-Carulla et al.
considered the dynamics of the concepts of well-
being and quality of life within the framework of
social sciences, health sciences, economics,
psychosocial-cultural and psychobiological
models, as well as within a holistic approach,
emphasizing the need to create a
βcomprehensive conceptual map of a series of
health related βmeta-categoriesβ (2014).
A state of well-being is determined by
subjective and objective factors. While objective
well-being includes physical factors necessary to
provide our basic needs, subjective well-being
involves psychological factors such as self-
confidence, life satisfaction, a sense of
belonging and purpose making it unique to each
of us (What Is Well-Being, 2020). Components of
subjective well-being βare not entirely
independent β they do overlap. These
measurement constructs may be thought of in
terms of a continuum, with essentially real-time
assessments of experience, emotional state, or
sensations at one end (associated with the
shortest time unit) and overall evaluations of life
satisfaction, purpose, or suffering at the other end
(the longest reference periods or no particular
reference period)β (Subjective Well-Being, 2013).
The terms used to describe subjective well-
being have often been applied ambiguously. For
example, the term βhappinessβ has been used to
describe both momentary assessments of affect
and life evaluations complicating the overall
picture. For the purposes of our study, we want to
refer to Chekolaβs logical/conceptual core of the
concept of happiness: βhappiness (a) as having
to do with oneβs life as a whole, (b) as being
relatively long-lasting (when we talk about
happiness of a life it is not just for a moment or a
day; it is for a significant period), (c) as making
oneβs life worthwhile (it is a final value), and (d) as
being something all people desireβ (2007).
Emphasizing its βuniversalβ character, this
understanding of happiness takes us beyond the
scope of simple affects and brings us closer to
the eudaimonic concept of happiness.
The eudaimonic approach focuses on
meanings, purposes, and self-realization and
defines well-being in terms of full human
functioning. It is the purpose of a human life β to
live well, to thrive, to be happy, and to realize
oneβs potential in a social context (Waterman,
1993). Contemporary researchers have
developed several approaches to eudaimonic
well-being, such as Ryffβs theory of psychological
well-being, self-determination theory, Keyesβs
model of mental health.
Within the eudaimonic approach, Ryff shows
that a deeper sense of purpose and self-
actualization contribute to psychological well-
being which depends on social and
environmental factors rather than on personβs
individual experience (2008). The findings suggest
that higher levels of psychological well-being
may lead to better health outcomes, including a
reduced risk of chronic diseases and increased
life expectancy. Interventions such as well-being
therapy based on Ryffβs multidimensional
eudaimonic model of psychological well-being
have shown promising results in improving
patientsβ impaired levels of psychological well-
being and preventing relapse in people with
mood disorders (Fava & Ruini, 2014). The results
highlight the potential for the practical
implementation of well-being research in clinical
settings and underscore the need for a
multidisciplinary approach to studying well-being
and integrating insights from different disciplines.
This holistic perspective can help us understand
how different factors contribute to well-being and
how they can be used to improve peopleβs lives
(Ryff, 2014).
Self-determination theory elaborated by Ryan
and Deci offers a broad framework for thinking
about the factors that determine peopleβs
motivation and their psychological development
(2000). It begins with organismic metatheory, a
set of philosophical assumptions about human
nature. The theory suggests that humans are
naturally active, with tendencies to assimilate,
seek out and master challenges, and integrate
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new experiences. Within the framework of self-
determination theory, the primary psychological
process through which this occurs is called
organismic integration, a manifestation of the
proactive, synthetic nature of a human (Ryan &
Deci, 2022). Effective functioning of organismic
integration requires the continuous satisfaction of
peopleβs basic psychological needs for
autonomy (people need to feel that they are
masters of their own destiny and have some
control over their lives and their own behavior),
competence (achievements, knowledge, and
skills) and relatedness (a sense of belonging and
connection). These needs are critical to virtually
all aspects of individual and social functioning.
Support for the satisfaction of these needs in the
social context (both developmentally and
situationally) promotes growth, engagement,
efficacy, and well-being, whereas contexts that
hinder the satisfaction of these needs often
catalyze defensiveness, rigidity, and various forms
of distress and psychopathology (Ryan et al.,
2016).
Ryan, Huta and Deci hold the belief that the
hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives are
different not because they consider different
types of well-being, states, or outcomes, but
because they have very different goals:
βeudaimonic conceptions focus on the content
of oneβs life, and the processes involved in living
well, whereas hedonic conceptions of well-being
focus on a specific outcome, namely the
attainment of positive affect and an absence of
painβ (2008, p. 140). Hedonic pleasure and
positive emotions are also important because
they are preferred states and support other
human functions: βpleasure, psychological
health, and optimal functioning are inter-
correlatedβ (2008, p. 141). At the same time,
within the framework of the eudaimonic tradition
of Aristotle, they understand eudaimonia as a
βway of living that is focused on what is intrinsically
worthwhile to human beingsβ (2008, p. 147).
Although eudaimonia is not the final
destination but a life process itself, the authors
suggest that this life journey is associated with
psychological well-being, the quality of
relationships, and a personβs impact on collective
outcomes. The results of the eudaimonic way of
life are: subjective and psychological well-being,
subjective vitality, meaning in life, physical health.
The researchers demonstrate that, unlike a
hedonistic individual, eudaimonic individuals
βhave high levels of inner peace, as well as
frequent experiences of moral elevation and
deep appreciation of life; feel connected not
only with themselves but also with a greater whole
that transcends them as individuals; have a sense
of where they fit in to a bigger picture and are
able to put things in perspective; and describe
themselves as βfeeling rightβ (as opposed to
βfeeling goodβ, the state that hedonically
oriented individuals seem to pursue). A life of
hedonia has in most analyses been unrelated to
these outcomesβ (Ryan et al., 2008, p. 162-163).
Interpreting mental health as well-being, Keyes
developed a model in which well-being
manifests itself as an important indicator of a
flourishing life. As the researcher notes, mental
health is often interpreted as simply the opposite
of mental illness; that is, the absence of mental
illness equals to the presence of mental health.
According to this assumption, if society can
effectively treat mental illness, more people will
become mentally healthy. However, βmental
health and mental illness are not opposite ends
of a single continuum; rather, they constitute
distinct but correlated axes that suggest that
mental health should be viewed as a complete
state. Thus, the absence of mental illness does
not equal the presence of mental healthβ (Keyes,
2005, p. 546). The study demonstrates that pure
languishing without overt mental illness is just as
dysfunctional as mental illness. Keyes suggests
considering mental health as βthe continuum at
the top of the cliff where most individuals reside.
Flourishing individuals are at the healthiest and
therefore farthest distance from the edge of this
cliff; languishing places individuals very near the
edge of the cliffβ (2005, p. 547). This vision
ultimately led to the creation of the dual continua
model of mental health, which holds that mental
health and mental illness are related but distinct
dimensions. It is not the absence of mental
disorder that indicated positive mental health,
but the presence of emotional well-being (feeling
of happiness and satisfaction with oneβs life),
psychological well-being (positive individual
functioning in terms of self-realization), and social
well-being (positive societal functioning in terms
of being of social value) (Westerhof & Keyes,
2010).
This model is fundamentally consistent with the
WHO definition of mental health, which defines it
as a βstate of well-being in which an individual
realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the
normal stresses of life, can work productively and
is able to make a contribution to his or her
communityβ (Mental Health, 2025). Thus, mental
health depends on an individualβs ability to cope
emotionally, psychologically and socially with
stressors and life challenges and to learn from life
lessons. Thriving individuals demonstrate high
levels of well-being, set high goals; they are
resilient and their interactions with others satisfy
their needs for belonging and support. This
contributes to achieving and maintaining positive
mental health (Reis & Gable, 2003).
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Contemporary research shows that positive
mental health as a key element of well-being is a
particularly important predictor of remission in
people with mental disorders such as specific
phobia, social phobia, panic disorder,
agoraphobia, suicidal ideation (Boreham &
Schutte, 2023; Keyes, 2005; Lukat et al., 2016;
Margraf et al., 2024; Teismann et al., 2018;
Teismann et al., 2025). Researchers note that the
lack of positive psychological (eudaimonic) well-
being is a significant factor in the occurrence of
a depressive disorder: people who demonstrate
positive psychological well-being, which includes
positive self-perception, autonomy, purpose in
life, positive relationships with others, mastery of
the environment, openness to new things and
personal growth, are half as likely to develop
depression as people with low positive well-being,
regardless of the presence of negative
functioning and impaired physical health (Wood
& Joseph, 2010). Therefore, maintenance and
improvement of positive mental health should not
be a secondary outcome measure in therapy,
but should take its rightful (and eventually leading)
place within the model of sustainable mental
health (Trompetter et al., 2017).
A high level of subjective well-being, which
encompasses the various forms of happiness, is
an important factor that contributes to a personβs
success in life. According to research, both
internal and external circumstances influence
happiness, and among them are inborn
temperament, personality, outlook, resilience as
internal causes; sufficient material and social
recourses, desirable society as external causes
(Diener et al, 1999; Lyubomirsky, 2014). In this
paper, we want to focus on resilience as we live
in an unpredictable, changing world (Danylova et
al., 2022; Danylova et al., 2023a). Desperately
trying to struggle with uncertainty and to restore
our ontological security, we sink deeper into the
abyss of fears and anxiety (Danylova et al.,
2023b). However, as Wei stressed, βchange,
uncertainty, and contradiction are ever-present
and ever-constant. You can let go of the idea of
linear progress and full resolution, and by doing
so, you build resilienceβ (2016). To achieve and
maintain our well-being in this world, we must
learn to accept unpleasant emotions, tolerate
discomfort, and learn from them by fostering our
resilience.
APA defines resilience as the βprocess and
outcome of successfully adapting to difficult or
challenging life experiences, especially through
mental, emotional, and behavioral flexibility and
adjustment to external and internal demandsβ
(Resilience, 2018), while Cambridge Dictionary
focuses on βthe ability to be happy, successful,
etc. again after something difficult or bad has
happenedβ (Resilience, n/d). The more resilient
individuals are and the more resilient our social
circle is, the lower our likelihood of developing
mental health problems and the higher our
likelihood of experiencing happiness (Aizpitarte
Gorrotxategi, 2024).
Resilience is multifaceted, and one of its
components is emotional intelligence (Ciarrochi
et al., 2006). Developing an allostatic active
inference model, Waugh and Sali stress that
emotional intelligence helps people to be
resilient. Interpreting resilience as the higher-order
ability that includes emotional intelligence, they
characterize it as βthe ability to maintain high
well-being in spite of threats to that well-beingβ
(2023). This model βhelps to explain the role of
positive emotions in resilience as well as how
people high in resilience ability use regulatory
flexibility in the service of maintaining well-being
and provides a starting point for assessing
resilience as an abilityβ (Waugh & Sali, 2023).
A developed resilience ability is key to
restoring mental health after traumatic exposure,
which can even lead to post-traumatic growth.
Traumatic events are incidents that cause
physical, emotional, psychological, spiritual
harm. They may involve actual or threatened
death or serious injury, eliciting responses of fear,
helplessness, or horror in those exposed (Cafasso,
2023; Traumatic Event, n/d). Traumatic events
affect people differently; there is a range of
options: from PTSD to resilient responses, which
depend βon many factors, including
characteristics of the individual, the type and
characteristics of the event(s), developmental
processes, the meaning of the trauma, and
sociocultural factorsβ (Trauma-Informed Care,
2014).
In a globalized world, sociocultural factors
appear particularly important. Indeed, cultures
and specific social settings shape how their
representatives interpret, experience, express,
and deal with traumatic events. Being a social
construct, the cultural world is fundamentally
different from the natural world. As Berger and
Luckmann put it, βwhat is βrealβ to a Tibetan monk
may not be βrealβ to an American businessmanβ
(1966, p. 15). A deeper understanding of the
perception of psychological processes in
different cultural contexts can facilitate the
development of effective interventions that take
into account broader psychological, cultural,
structural, and societal factors (Bovey et al.,
2025). This approach provides an opportunity to
move away from the biomedical model of a
human and consider his/her nature, mental
health, and well-being through the lens of a
holistic paradigm that takes into account all
manifestations of a human being.
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In the last decades, there has been increasing
research into the positive effects of trauma as a
situation that initiates personality change; and the
concept of posttraumatic growth (PTG) has been
developed. Posttraumatic growth is defined as
βpositive psychological changes experienced as
a result of the struggle with traumatic or highly
challenging life circumstances. These changes
occur in response to the challenge to what
people assumed to be true about the lives they
livedβ (Tedeschi et al., 2018, p. 3). Such changes
can lead to increased self-awareness and self-
confidence, a more open attitude towards
others, a greater appreciation of life, and the
discovery of new opportunities that contribute to
positive mental health and well-being (Messias et
al., 2020). Yet, we have to remember that the
difference between PTSR and PTG may be very
subtle and they may proceed in pairs (DellβOsso
et al., 2022). Some researchers also question the
prevalence of actual posttraumatic growth
βsuggesting instead that most of this
phenomenon as currently measured is due to
peopleβs beliefs that they have grown and less to
actual lasting changes in their well-beingβ
(Waugh & Sali, 2023).
Traumatic events can affect not only
individuals, but also groups, societies, and
sometimes entire civilizations. Individual
experiences of suffering fuel any collective
trauma, but, as Alexander emphasizes, it is the
threat to collective identity that defines the
essence of suffering (2016). A collective trauma
targets the shared identity and may affect society
as a whole. When βmembers of a collectivity feel
they have been subjected to a horrendous event
that leaves indelible marks upon their group
consciousness, marking their memories forever
and changing their future identity in fundamental
and irrevocable waysβ (Alexander, 2004, p. 1), we
deal with cultural trauma which is βhistorically
madeβ (Smelser, 2004, p. 37). Often collective
and cultural traumas are connected. The pain of
cultural trauma may be transmitted to new
generations through psychological modeling,
social environment, and epigenetic changes.
Through psychological modeling, children learn
emotional responses and coping behaviors from
their traumatized parents or caregivers. Observing
parentsβ constant anxiety, they develop
hypervigilance. Social environment shapes
childrenβs worldviews and their development that
leads to difficulties and lack of trust in
relationships. Cultural trauma alters gene
expression patterns, and offspring may show
altered stress hormone regulation being more
vulnerable to anxiety (How Does Cultural Trauma,
2025).
Minority groups are often disproportionally
affected by cultural trauma. All this has an
impact on the mental health and well-being of
traumatized groups or societies, members of
which experience stress, anxiety, depression,
stigma, isolation, antisocial behavior, substance
abuse, insomnia, hopelessness, feelings of
worthlessness, resentment, fear, and existential
problems (Danylova et al., 2024; Geronimus et
al., 1996; Hutchison et al., 2007; Kang et al.,
2024; Levine et al., 2001; Parasies et al., 2015;
Vus et al., 2024). The lack of resources leads to
untreated mental health disorders as βcultural
trauma may represent an unrecognized
fundamental cause of health disparitiesβ (Subica
& Link, 2021). Being transferred to next
generations, cultural trauma may disturb their
normal psychological development and deprive
them of the opportunity to feel valued members
of society and enjoy positive mental health and
well-being. There are different styles of coping
with collective/cultural traumas, and recent
approaches emphasize respecting them and not
valuing one type over another (Trauma-Informed
Care, 2014), if these responses allow people to
return to a state of productive functioning in
society with a sense of their value and uniqueness
in our diverse world, in which they can feel
happy.
Limitations and Future Research
Directions
This review paper examines the problem as a
whole, so caution is needed when generalizing
the findings. On the other hand, this theoretical
study may pave the way for multidisciplinary
research at the intersection of social sciences
and humanities.
Practical value
This research contributes to the elaboration of
the concept of positive mental health and well-
being incorporating philosophical understanding
of the phenomenon of happiness, which allows
to deepen and expand the interpretation of
happiness in theoretical and conceptual
frameworks and practical implications
Conclusions
The dramatic shift in approaches to mental
health and well-being with an emphasis on
positivity has been made possible in large part by
the development of positive psychology that
draws on the foundations of humanistic
psychology; acceptance and commitment
76
Mental Health: Global Challenges Journal
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ISSN 2612-2138
therapy, which, like positive psychology, aims to
improve psychological well-being; and existential
psychology, which differs from positive
psychology but shares with the latter the belief
that people have the capacity for self-
awareness, free choice, creativity, love, and
authenticity β a human path to transformation.
This paradigmatic shift towards βpositivityβ has
expanded understanding of factors and
conditions that promote or undermine our mental
health and well-being. Such an understanding
should lead to the creation of conditions for
individual flourishing, social prosperity, and overall
well-being offering innovative solutions to
complex individual, organizational, and societal
problems (Kumkaria et al., 2024; Lomas et al.,
2021; Worthington & van Zyl, 2021). A new
positive approach to mental health and human
well-being must take into account cultural and
social contexts, individual differences, ethical
aspects and be focused on stable long-term
development, which requires integration with
other disciplines and the creation of a unified
platform for research aimed at solving social,
cultural, economic, political, and spiritual
challenges humanity faces in the 21st century.
Funding statement
The authors received no financial support for
the research, authorship, and publication of this
article. The publication fee was covered by the
authors personally.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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